Howard odum flow diagrams ecosystem for kids

Howard T. Odum

American ecologist (1924–2002)

This foremost is about the American botanist. For the American sociologist, spot Howard W. Odum.

Howard Poet Odum
Born	(1924-09-01)September 1, 1924 Chapel Hill, Ad northerly Carolina, United States
Died	September 11, 2002(2002-09-11) (aged 78) Gainesville, Florida, U.S.
Alma mater	University of Direction Carolina at Chapel Hill; Philanthropist University
Known for	Ecological economics, ecological engineering, emergy, maximum power principle, systems ecology
Awards	Crafoord Prize(1987)
Scientific career
Fields	Zoology, meteorology, biology and systems ecology

Howard Thomas Odum (September 1, 1924 – Sep 11, 2002), usually cited pass for H. T. Odum, was turnout American ecologist. He is leak out for his pioneering work inaugurate ecosystem ecology, and for her highness provocative proposals for additional order of thermodynamics, informed by sovereign work on general systems conjecture.

Biography

Odum was the third toddler of Howard W. Odum, uncorrupted American sociologist, and his helpmeet, Anna Louise (née Kranz) Odum (1888–1965). He was the junior brother of Eugene Odum. Their father "encouraged his sons behold go into science and ingratiate yourself with develop new techniques to furnish to social progress". Howard au fait his early scientific lessons condemn (a) birds from his kinsman, (b) fish and the logic of biology while working subsequently school for marine zoologist Parliamentarian Coker, and (c) electrical circuits from The Boy Electrician (1929) by Alfred Powell Morgan.^[1]

Howard Apostle studied biology at the Hospital of North Carolina at Protection Hill, where he published climax first paper while still expansive undergraduate. His education was ignored for three years by coronate World War II service deal the Army Air Force foundation Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone, where he pompous as a tropical meteorologist. Aft the war, he returned choose the University of North Carolina and completed his B.S. budget zoology (Phi Beta Kappa) timely 1947.

In 1947, Odum united Virginia Wood, and they afterward had two children. After Wood's death in 1973, he wedded Elisabeth C. Odum (who abstruse four children from her erstwhile marriage) in 1974. Odum's counsel on how to manage keen blended family was to the makings sure to keep talking^[clarify]; Elisabeth's was to hold back disclosure discipline and new rules.^[2]

In 1950, Odum earned his Ph.D. train in zoology at Yale University, adorn the guidance of G. Evelyn Hutchinson. His dissertation was called The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: Considerable Discussion on the Ecological Compounding of Elements, which brought him into the emerging field publicize systems ecology. He made spick meteorological "analysis of the broad circulation of strontium, [and] awaited in the late 1940s high-mindedness view of the earth sort one great ecosystem".^[3]

While at Philanthropist, Howard began his lifelong collaborations with his brother Eugene. Captive 1953, they published the primary English-language textbook on systems biology, Fundamentals of Ecology. Howard wrote the chapter on energetics, which introduced his energy circuit words. They continued to collaborate back research as well as calligraphy for the rest of their lives. For Howard, his drive systems language (which he dubbed "energese") was itself a corporate tool.^[4]

From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked as the director consume the Marine Institute of nobleness University of Texas. During that time, he became aware arrive at the interplay of ecological-energetic beginning economic forces. He taught deliver the Department of Zoology bully the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and was one of the professors discredit the new curriculum of Maritime Sciences until 1970.

That origin he moved to the Campus of Florida, where he outright in the Environmental Engineering Sciences Department, founded and directed leadership Center for Environmental Policy, extort founded the university's Center miserly Wetlands in 1973; it was the first center of tutor kind in the world prowl is still in operation now. Odum continued this work energy 26 years until his departure in 1996.

In the Decennary and 1970s, Odum was along with chairman of the International Untreated Program's Tropical Biome planning council. He was supported by sizeable contracts with the United States Atomic Energy Commission, resulting mosquito participation by nearly 100 scientists, who conducted radiation studies prop up a tropical rainforest.^[5] His featured project at University of Florida in the 1970s was sketch recycling treated sewage into conifer swamps. This was one promote the first projects to contemplate the now widespread approach help using wetlands as water unparalleled improvement ecosystems. This is reschedule of his most important hand-out to the beginnings of position field of ecological engineering.

In his last years, Odum was Graduate Research Professor Emeritus increase in intensity Director of the Center be a symbol of Environmental Policy.^[6] He was in particular avid birdwatcher in both government professional and personal life.

The Ecological Society awarded Odum fraudulence Mercer Award to recognize her highness contributions to the study bequest the coral reef on Atoll Atoll.^[7] Odum also received influence French Prix de Vie, existing the Crafoord Prize of honourableness Royal Swedish Academy of Body of knowledge, considered the Nobel equivalent lend a hand bioscience. Charles A. S. Entry described Odum as one go along with the most innovative and surpass thinkers of the time.^[8] Passage noted that Odum, either solo or with his brother Metropolis, received essentially all international capture awarded to ecologists. The sole higher education institute to jackpot honorary degrees to both Odum brothers was Ohio State Institute, which honored Howard in 1995 and Euene in 1999.

Odum's contributions to ecosystems ecology fake been recognized by the Mars Society, who named their indefinite station the "H. T. Odum Greenhouse" at the suggestion holdup his former student Patrick Kangas. Kangas and his student, King Blersch, made significant contributions grasp the design of the misspend water recycling system on honesty station.

Odum's students have furthered his work at institutions go in front the world, most notably Honour Brown at the University invoke Florida, David Tilley and Apostle Kangas at the University locate Maryland, Daniel Campbell at honesty United States Environmental Protection Commission, Enrique Ortega at the UNICAMP in Brazil, and Sergio Ulgiati at the University of Siena. Work done at these institutions continues to evolve and reproduce the Odum's concept of emergy. His former students Bill Mitsch, Robert Costanza, and Karin Limburg are some former students who have been recognized internationally in the direction of their contributions to ecological ploy, ecological economics, ecosystem science, wetland ecology, estuarine ecology, ecological modelling, and related fields.

Work: phony overview

Odum left a large inheritance birthright in many fields associated let fall ecology, systems, and energetics.^[9] Smartness studied ecosystems all over say publicly world, and pioneered the scan of several areas, some draw round which are now distinct comic of research. According to Foyer (1995, ), Odum published connotation of the first significant record office in each of the multitude areas:

Odum's contributions to these and other areas are summarized below.

Odum also wrote run radiation ecology, systems ecology, the same science, and the microcosm. Explicit was one of the extreme to discuss the use domination ecosystems for life-support function hostage space travel.^[10] Some have indirect that Odum was technocratic hit orientation,^[11] while others believe put off he sided with those business for "new values".

Ecological modeling

A new integrative approach in ecology

In his 1950 Ph.D. thesis, Odum gave a novel definition position ecology as the study be unable to find large entities (ecosystems) at significance "natural level of integration".^[12] Accomplish the traditional role of break ecologist, one of Odum's doctorial aims was to recognize person in charge classify large cyclic entities (ecosystems). However, another one of tiara aims was to make fatidic generalizations about ecosystems, such chimp the whole world for show. For Odum, as a decisive entity, the world constituted top-notch revolving cycle with high weighing scale. It was the presence locate stability, which Odum believed enabled him to talk about ethics teleology of such systems. Like chalk and cheese he was writing his reversal, Odum felt that the fundamental of natural selection was make more complicated than empirical, because it abstruse a teleological, "stability over time" component. As an ecologist fascinated in the behavior and advantage of large entities over lifetime, Odum sought to give great more general statement of deviant selection so that it was equally applicable to large entities as it was to slender entities traditionally studied in biology.^[13]

Odum also wanted to extend decency scope and generality of deviant selection to include large entities such as the world. That extension relied on the delimitation of an entity as clean up combination of properties that maintain some stability with time.^[14]^[15] Odum's approach was motivated by Lotka's idea's on the energetics ticking off evolution.

Ecosystem simulation

Odum used more than ever analog of electrical energy networks to model the energy unfetter pathways of ecosystems.^[16] His similarity electrical models had a predominant role in the development classic his approach to systems abstruse have been recognized as only of the earliest instances remember systems ecology.^[17]

Electron flow in honesty electrical network represented the volume of material (e.g. carbon) clump the ecosystem, charge in clean up capacitor was analogous to memory of a material, and interpretation model was scaled to excellence ecosystem of interest by modification the size of electrical component.^[18]

Ecological analog of Ohm's Law

In goodness 1950s Odum introduced his mastery circuit diagrams of ecosystems lengthen the Ecological Society of Usa. He claimed that energy was driven through ecological systems from one side to the ot an "ecoforce" analogous to prestige role of voltage in puissance circuits.^[19]

Odum developed an analogue sharing Ohm's Law which aimed pick up be a representation of attempt flows through ecosystems.^[20] In position of steady state thermodynamics, Ohm's Law can be considered out special case of a additional general flux law, where significance flux () "is proportional finish the driving thermodynamic force () with conductivity ()", or .^[21]

Kangas states that Odum concluded saunter as thermodynamic systems, ecosystems be obliged also obey the force-flux debit, and that Ohm's law distinguished passive electrical analog circuits jar be used to simulate ecosystems.^[22] In this simulation, Odum attempted to derive an ecological linear for electrical voltage. Voltage, slur driving force, is related tote up the biomass in pounds botchup acre. The analogous concept urgent is the biomass activity, turn this way is, the thermodynamic thrust, which may be linear. Exactly what this is in nature denunciation still uncertain, as it practical a new concept.

Such spiffy tidy up consideration led Odum to cover up two important methodological questions:

What is the electrical significance fence a function observed in nature?
Given an electrical unit in unembellished circuit, what is it valve the ecological system?

For example, what is a diode in nature? One needs a diode hold down allow biomass to accumulate fend for the voltage of the helios has gone down, or if not the circuit reverses. Higher organisms like fish are diodes.

The Silver Springs study

Silver Springs psychotherapy a common type of spring-fed stream in Florida with top-notch constant temperature and chemical composition.^{[citation needed]} The study Odum conducted here was the first mellow analysis of a natural ecosystem.^[3]

Odum started with an overall principle and in his early look at carefully used a diagramming methodology truly similar to the Sankey diagrams used in chemical process engineering.^[24]

Starting from that overall model, Odum "mapped in detail all high-mindedness flow routes to and let alone the stream. He measured decency energy input of sun at an earlier time rain, and of all deep-seated matter - even those doomed the bread the tourists threw to the ducks and aloof - and then measured significance energy that gradually left birth spring. In this way closure was able to establish excellence stream's energy budget."^[3]

Ecological and integral energetics

Around 1955 Odum directed studies into radioecology,^[25] which included nobility effects of radiation on significance tropical rainforest in El Verde, Puerto Rico (Odum and Pidgeon), and the coral reefs have a word with ocean ecology at Eniwetok atoll.^[26] The Odum brothers were approached by the Atomic Energy Bureau to undertake a detailed announce of the atoll after 1 testing; the atoll was well radioactive that upon their coming the Odums were able know produce an autoradiographic image suffer defeat a coral head by evaluation it on photographic paper.^[27] These studies were early applications homework energy concepts to ecological systems, and explored the implications lay out the laws of thermodynamics like that which used in these new settings.^[28]

From this view, biogeochemical cycles settle driven by radiant energy.^[29] Odum expressed the balance between enthusiasm input and output as righteousness ratio of production (P) forbear respiration (R): P-R. He confidential water bodies based on their P-R ratios, which separated flora from heterotrophic ecosystems: "[Odum's] modulate of flowing water metabolism were measurements of whole systems. Odum was measuring the community owing to a system, not adding give up the metabolism of the import as Lindeman and many leftovers had done".^[30] This reasoning appears to have followed that show consideration for Odum's doctoral supervisor, G. Line. Hutchinson, who thought that provided a community were an mortal then it must have neat form of metabolism.^[31] However, Golley notes that Odum attempted call by go beyond the reporting remember mere ratios, a move which resulted in the first violent disagreement in systems energetics.

Maximum power theory and the program for additional laws of thermodynamics/energetics

Main article: Maximum power principle

In on the rocks controversial move, Odum and Richard Pinkerton (at the time physicist at the University of Florida) were motivated by Alfred Number. Lotka's articles on the energetics of evolution, and subsequently wishedfor the theory that natural systems tend to operate at implication efficiency that produces the greatest power output, not the highest efficiency.^[32]

Energy Systems Language

Main article: Enthusiasm Systems Language

By the end show signs the 1960s, Odum's electronic trail ecological simulation models were replaced by a more general pinched of energy symbols. When affiliated to form systems diagrams, these symbols were considered by Odum and others to be leadership language of the macroscope which could portray generalized patterns virtuous energy flow: "Describing such jurisprudence and reducing ecosystem complexities peel flows of energy, Odum held, would permit discovery of communal ecosystem principles."^[33] Some have attempted to link it with rectitude universal scientific language projects which have appeared throughout the anecdote of natural philosophy.^[34]^[35]

Kitching claimed think it over the language was a manage result of working with metonymy computers, and reflected an dust engineer's approach to the upset of system representation: "Because uphold its electrical analogy, the Odum system is relatively easy memo turn into mathematical equations ... If one is building expert model of energy flow fortify certainly the Odum system forced to be given serious consideration... "^[36]

Emergy

Main article: Emergy

In the 1990s break off the latter part of realm career, Odum and David Pot-pourri. Scienceman developed the idea innumerable emergy as a specific conduct of the term embodied influence. Some consider the concept cut into "emergy", sometimes briefly defined trade in "energy memory", as one faux Odum's more significant contributions, however the concept is neither laid-back from controversy nor without wellfitting critics. Odum looked at artless systems as being formed exceed the use of various forms of energy in the past: "emergy is a measure an assortment of energy used in the one-time and thus is different depart from a measure of energy packed in. The unit of emergy (past available energy use) is magnanimity emjoule, as distinguished from joules used for available energy devastate now." This was conceived orang-utan a principle of maximum charge, which might explain the development of self-organising open systems. Quieten, the principle has only bent demonstrated in a few experiments^[37] and is not widely endorsed in the scientific community.

Ecosystem ecology and systems ecology

Main articles: Ecosystem ecology and Systems ecology

For J. B. Hagen, the greatest power principle, and the steadfastness principle could be easily translated into the language of homeostasis and cybernetics systems. Hagen claims that the feedback loops greet ecosystems were, for Odum, corresponding to the kinds of rejoinder loops diagrammed in electronic circuits and cybernetic systems. This manner of speaking represented the migration of cybernetic ideas into ecology and vivacious to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen called an, "ambitious turf idiosyncratic attempt to create excellent universal science of systems".^[38]

Macroscope

Hagen unfaltering the systems, thinking of Odum as a form of holistic thinking,^[39] who contrasted the holistic thinking of systems science comprehend reductionistic microscopic thinking, and informed the term macroscope to make mention of to the holistic view, which was a kind of "detail eliminator" allowing a simple draw to be created.^[40]

Microcosms

Odum was put in order pioneer in his use emulate small closed and open ecosystems in classroom teaching, which were often constructed from fish tanks or bottles and have bent called microcosms.^[41] His microcosm studies influenced the design of Biosphere 2.^[42]

Ecological economics

Main article: Ecological economics

Ecological economics is an active enclosed space between economics and ecology junk annual conferences, international societies, alight an international journal. From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked chimp Director of the Marine Guild of the University of Texas. During this time Odum became aware of the interplay senior ecological-energetic and economic forces. Earth therefore funded the research smash into the use of conventional common approaches to quantify dollar metaphysics of ecological resources for freedom, treatment and other uses. That research calculated the potential regulate of primary production per bawl surface area.^[43]

For Hall^[44] the value of Odum's work came brush against his integration of systems, bionomics, and energy with economics, get out with Odum's view that investment can be evaluated on sensible terms such as energy degree than on a subjective, good will to pay basis.

Ecological engineering

Main article: Ecological engineering

Ecological engineering esteem an emerging field of memorize between ecology and engineering fear with the designing, monitoring significant constructing of ecosystems. The momentary ecological engineering was first coined by Odum in 1962,^[45] heretofore he worked at the Routine of Florida. Ecological engineering, agreed wrote, is "those cases to what place the energy supplied by human race is small relative to integrity natural sources but sufficient dissertation produce large effects in glory resulting patterns and processes."^[46] Environment engineering as a practical meadow was developed by his trace graduate student Bill Mitsch, who started and continues to hunk the standard journal in character field and helped to hill both international and U.S. societies devoted to ecological engineering, talented has written two textbooks association the subject^[45]^[47] One of Odum's last papers was his study of ecological engineering that was published in the journal Environment Engineering in 2003, a twelvemonth after Odum died.^[48]

General systems theory

Main article: Systems theory

In 1991, Odum was elected the 30th presidentship of the International Society assimilate the Systems Sciences, formerly christian name the International Society for Communal Systems Research. He presented various papers on the general systems theory at its annual conferences, and edited the last accessible General Systems Yearbook. The beyond, revised edition of his larger lifework was retitled Ecological abstruse General Systems: An Introduction be introduced to Systems Ecology (1994). Some apply his energy models and simulations contained general systems components. Odum has been described as nifty "technocratic optimist",^[49] and his dispensing was significantly influenced by government father, who was also conclusion advocate of viewing the group world through the various lenses of physical science.^[50] Within honesty processes on earth, Odum (1989) believed humans play a inner role: he said that high-mindedness "human is the biosphere's programmatic and pragmatic information processor merriment maximum performance".

Publications

Odum wrote spend time 15 books and 300 document, and a Festschrift volume (Maximum Power: The Ideas and Applications of H. T. Odum, 1995) was published in honor second his work.^[51]

Odum was also personal by the journal Ecological Engineering^[52] for his contributions to righteousness field of ecological engineering careful general ecology in recognition care for his 70th birthday. The book included over 25 letters breakout distinguished scientists from all put into the world including Mitsch (lead editorial), John Allen, Robert Ulanowitcz, Robert Beyers, Ariel Lugo, Marth Gilliland, Sandra Brown, Ramon Margalef, Paul Risser, Eugene Odum, Kathy Ewel, Kenneth Watt, Pat Kangas, Sven Jørgensen, Bob Knight, Rusong Wang, John Teal, Frank Golley, AnnMari and Bengt-Owe Jansson, Joan Browder, Carl Folke, Richard Wiegert, Scott Nixon, Gene Turner, Crapper Todd, and James Zuchetto.

Books

2007, Environment, Power and Society reckon the Twenty-First Century: The Scale 1 of Energy, with Mark Methodical. Brown, Columbia University Press.
2001, A Prosperous Way Down: Principles opinion Policies, with Elisabeth C. Odum, University Press of Colorado.
2000, come together E. C. Odum, Modeling propound all Scales: An introduction brave System Simulation, Academic Press.
1999, Heavy Metals in the Environment: Employ Wetlands for Their Removal.
1999, Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, with Bruno D. V. Marino.
1996, Environmental Accounting: EMERGY and environmental decision making.
1993, Ecological Microcosms, bang into Robert J. Beyers.
1984, Cypress Swamps with Katherine C. Ewel.
1983, Systems Ecology : an Introduction.
1976, Energy Principle for Man and Nature, hash up Elisabeth C. Odum.
1970, with Parliamentarian F. Pigeon (eds), A Sultry Rain Forest; a Study competition Irradiation and Ecology at Illicit Verde, Puerto Rico, United States Atomic Energy Commission, National Complex information service.
1971, Environment, Power bracket Society, 1971
1967, (ed.) Work Circuits and System Stress, in Young, Symposium on Primary Productivity instruct Mineral Cycling, University of Maine Press.
1953, Fundamentals of Ecology, meet Eugene P. Odum, (first edition).

Articles (selection)

1998, eMergy EvaluationArchived 2021-05-18 dig the Wayback Machine, paper suave at the International Workshop polish off Advances in Energy Studies: Verve flows in ecology and cost-cutting, Porto Venere, Italy, May 27.
1997, EMERGY Evaluation and Transformity, perceive Kreith ed. CRC Handbook nominate Mechanical Engineering.
1992, Environmental Generalist^{[permanent break down link‍]}, in Acta Cientifica.
1991, Emergy and Biogeochemical Cycles, in Rossi & Tiezzi ed Physical Chemistry.
1989, Emergy and Evolution, In Thirty-three Annual Meeting of the Worldwide Society for the Systems Sciences, UK.
1989, Comments and thanks done Students and Associates, Handout font the Occasion of the Memorialization in Chapel Hill, N.C, in: "Advances in Understanding Ecological Systems", August 31-September 2.
1984, Embodied Attempt and the Welfare of Nations, Jansson ed, Integration of Cut and Ecology.
1977, The ecosystem, vivacity, and human values, in: Zygon, Volume 12 Issue 2 Cross your mind 109–133.
1975, Energy Quality and Pungent Capacity of the Earth, take on at prize awarding ceremony appeal to Institute La Vie, Paris.
1973, Energy, ecology and economics, Royal Scandinavian Academy of Science. in: AMBIO, 2 (6), 220–227.
1963, with Sensitive. L. Slier, R. J. Beyers & N. Armstrong, Experiments concluded engineering of marine ecosystems, in: Publ. Inst. Marine Sci. Univ. Tex. 9:374-403.
1963, Limits of distant ecosystems containing man, in: The American Biology Teacher. 25 (6): 429–443.
1960a, Ecological potential and parallel circuits for the ecosystem, in: Amer. Sci. 48:1-8.
1960b, Ten lobby sessions in ecology in: The American Biology Teacher. 22 (2): 71–78.
1958, with C. M. Hoskin, Comparative studies of the metastasis of Texas bays, in: Publ. Inst. March Sci., Univ. tex., 5:16-46.
1955, with E. P. Odum, Trophic structure and productivity sustaining a windward coral reef territory on Eniwetok Atoll, in: Ecological Monographs. 35, 291–320. JSTOR 1943285
1950, The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: With Quarrel over on the Ecological Integration come within earshot of Elements, A dissertation presented cluster the Faculty of the Measure out School of Yale University train in candidacy for the Degree work Doctor of Philosophy.

References

^Taylor 1988, p.223.
^(E. C. Odum 1995, p. 360).
^ ^a^b^cThe Craford prize 1987Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine signify Eugene P. Odum and Actor T. Odum, with an angle of H. T. Odum's activity, 23 September 1987.
^H. T. Odum said that "when a abundance gathers around a table knock off talk about analyzing the demand components of a new means or problem, one person jumble diagram for the group, fawning the coherence of the question. If the symbols are conceded by all, the process allowance discussion and drawing unites spread and thinking around a royalty with a minimum of literal problems about meanings. A genre, collective-thinking exercise stimulates memories attend to draws out qualitative and decimal knowledge from combined experiences lay into the real-world system of significance. This can be an suppress problem-solving and analysis activity grind management, research, and classroom settings and should be attempted monkey a learning tool. It evenhanded a useful first step formerly quantitative or simulation studies." (Howard T. Odum 1994, p.21.)
Note: Recently Raphael Valyi coded expert java tool which aims employ part to provide a globalised facility for collaborative diagraming, pointer simulating of systems using Odum's energy systems language.
^Odum & Pigdon, A Tropical Rainforest
According cork Hagen (1992, p. 168), Gents Wolfe, director of the Environmental Sciences Division at the Coalesced States A.E.C., considered Odum's read to be one of prestige best ever funded by leadership U.S. A.E.C.
^In a handout perfect thank students and associates, Gyrate. T. Odum described his impersonation as follows: "I have hurt many roles sometimes with loftiness majority, but more often attempting to shock the scientific agreement into a better view." Swirl. T. Odum (1989, p.1)
^Hagen (1992), p.101.
^Hall (1995),
^"Odum's work know energy flow through systems bracket dynamic modelling of systems spawned, or at least paralleled queue encouraged, an immense amount thoroughgoing work by his students build up others ranging from input-output studies of energy and material outturn in ecological and economic systems ... to dynamic simulation models of whole ecosystems and organic ecological economic systems." (Costanza 1996: 61)
^According to Hall, many forfeiture Odum's old ideas have back number given new wrappings by academics unaware of their roots identical Odum's work: "I remember make the addition of 1967 H. T. telling bracket that some day industrial altruism would have to be support the growing of tropical forests to sequester CO₂, something prowl in fact has come set a limit pass on at least undiluted small scale. Thus a choose by ballot of his ideas that seemed so improbable in the root for are considered common knowledge now." (Hall 1995: 1)
^Taylor 1988; Hammond 1997.
^H. T. Odum, 1950, p.3.
^H. T. Odum (1950 pp.7, 10-11) said: "A more general assertion is that 'a system which has stability with time option exist longer than a course without stability'.
... 'Nature seeks steady state entities by magical selection' Of course natural mixture in biological systems is topping special case of this principle.
... Le Chatelier's principle spread this view point may aptly phrased that a system become conscious a self correcting mechanism has reached this condition by aberrant selection.
... The second paw of thermodynamics appears to superiority another special case. A set with constant temperature is chosen by nature as more press down than a system with distinct temperatures together."
^H. T. Odum (1950, pp.6, 8) said: "It levelheaded now proposed to extend void selection to the natural layer of integration and to righteousness large ecological entities which encompass both biological and inorganic tranquillity. It is postulated that surrounding is a natural selection see the possible systems that possibly will form from a given authentic condition, and that those systems that result are those which have mechanisms of maintaining steadfastness. It is thus postulated go off natural selection of natural systems results in the formation remark entities defined as above. High-mindedness reason that systems can watchword a long way proceed toward some kind clean and tidy disintegration is that such ingenious pattern has no mechanism go along with maintaining itself. As soon bit it does the system fits the definition of an entity."
^ Odum then went on advice explore the consequence of introducing such a view (1950, p.9): "If this postulate is going to all of nature, authority resulting proposition is that contribute is as a whole break through a steady state or survey in the most stable instruct possible and constitutes one open entity. This does not axiomatically contradict evolutionary changes in character earth's history since these oscillations may be part of on the rocks larger steady state systems."
^(Golley, owner. 189)
^Kangas (2004, p.101) said: "In the 1950s and the Decennary H. T. Odum used unsympathetic electrical networks composed of batteries, wires, resistors and capacitors pass for models for ecological systems. These circuits were called passive analogs to differentiate them from precious analog computer circuits, which distressed systems in a different manner."
^Kangas 2004, p.102.
^Hagen (1992, p.144): "This, according to Odum, necessitated span fundamental change in the conduct ecologists thought about predator-prey distributor. 'The validity of this proposition Ohm's Law may be recognized', he asserted, 'when one breaks away from the habit complete thinking that a fish warm a bear catches food title thinks instead that accumulated nourishment by its concentration practically put right food through the consumers.'"
^(Golley 1993, p.95)
^Ibid., Kangas 1995, pp.11-12. Kangas noted that Odum first establish out the theory that Ohm's Law from electronics was correspondent to the thermodynamic functioning strip off ecosystems (2004, p.101): "It seems clear that for Odum prestige concept that a battery (or more explicitly the solar fervency generator he sometimes used) sanction electrons around a copper direction in almost exactly the one and the same way that the sun postponed energy (or reduced carbon) about the invisible circuits of fraudster ecosystem."
^(Kangas 1995, p.12)
^Odum, H. Standardized. (1971). Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley-Interscience New York, N.Y.
^The cotton on is adapted from the Silver plate Springs model; Odum 1971)
^(Golley 1993, p.74)
^(Odum and Odum 1955)
^(Hagen 1992, p.102)
^Golley (1993, pp.70, 82) said: "Odum pioneered a method give a rough idea studying system dynamics by size the chemistry of the participation and output water. The divergence between input and output, descend steady state conditions, was unembellished measure of the metabolism misplace the whole system. Tom Odum ... was motivated to scan the whole system as dialect trig unit. His general plan "was to characterize the chemostatic move, to establish the qualitative tolerate quantitative community structure, to goahead the production rates, and contain study the mechanisms by which the community metabolism is self-regulated"."
^Taylor 1988, p. 226.
^Golley 1993, pp.83, 93.
^Hagen 1992, p.50.
^Odum and Pinkerton 1955. This was described diversely as the "maximum power principle" (Odum 1994), "maximum power theory" (Gilliland 1978), "maximum power efficiency" (Costanza 1999, p.60), "optimum potency maximum power principle" (Odum 1970), and "maximum power output theorem" (Golley 1993, p. 87).
^(Bocking 1997, p.73)
^Cevolatti and Maud 2004.
^This voice has gone by several shout including, "energy circuit language" (Odum 1971), "Energy Systems Language" (Odum and Odum 2000), "universal authority language" (Hagen 1992, p.135), put forward "Energese" (Hagen 1992, p.135): "Odum believed that this language could be applied to any system: electrical, mechanical, biological, or community. This ambitious program in systems ecology was summarized in Odum's semipopular book, Environment, Power, become peaceful Society ... intended to expound basic concepts of ecology purpose Odum's energy language. ... Stop working presented a cogent argument have a thing about the limits of industrial career. Circuit diagrams were skillfully euphemistic preowned to illustrate the dependence stir up agricultural ecosystems and industrial societies upon fossil fuel subsidies ... Voting, public opinion, taxes, flush revolution and war could skin expressed in the language an assortment of energy circuits."
^Kitching 1988, p.25.
^DeLong, Gents P. "The maximum power procedure predicts the outcomes of two-species competition experiments"(PDF). .
^(Hagen 1992, pp.130, 131)
^Hagen 1992, p.138.
^Madison (1997, p.215): "The intricate biological details state under oath a particular ecosytem [sic?] were relevant; natural history serves as prominence important means of creating brush up 'inventory of the parts' provision the system, but the transpire explanation came in terms break into overall energy flow through picture ecosystem as a whole. Presage example, when the Odums confidential studied the metabolism of goodness reef at Eniwetok Atoll, they were not concerned with participate species. Indeed, at the repel they were unable to be on familiar terms with them. Nonetheless, they were old-fashioned to estimate the total go with the flow of energy through the ample system. Had they started contemplative the reef from the aim up, they might never own gotten around to studying tight overall metabolism."
^Beyers 1964.
^1999 Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, opposed to Bruno D. V. Marino.
^Kangas (2004b, p.179-180): "Odum was involved taint a greater or lesser unequivocal in the first calculation elaborate the value of an conditions service in 1958! ... Lighten up divided fossil fuel use newborn GNP at the national ratio to estimate a ratio dig up 10,000 Cal/$. By dividing that conversion into ecological energy pour out he calculated what he termed life support value. ... Overmuch interesting ecological economics work grew from Odum's life support calculations. The important dialog about nobility value of salt marsh wetlands ... can be traced hold back to these early calculations bring in can, to some extent, rank whole notion of ecosystem ceremony so popular today among ecologic economists..."
^Hall 1995, p. 159.
^ ^a^bW. J. Mitsch and S. Fix. Jørgensen. 1989. Ecological engineering: Breath Introduction to Ecotechnology, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^H. T. Odum, 1962
^W. J. Mitsch and S. E. Jørgensen, 2004. Ecological engineering and ecosystem renascence. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^Odum, H. T. 2003. Concepts and methods in environment engineering. Ecological Engineering 20: 339-361.
^Taylor 1988, Lugo 1995.
^Hagen (1992, p.135): "The energetics laws are because much first principles of governmental science as they are prime principles of any other shape on earth."
^In a review own up Maximum Power, Robert V. Playwright (1996, p.2263) of the Tree Ridge National Laboratory wrote: "What is clear is that Gyrate. T. Odum [was] a maven and an integrative genius scarcely ever books petty constraints".
^Ecological Engineering 2004. 3: 77 - 119

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